a) The quality of air:

The large-scale urbanization in Armenia has led to serious environmental problems, particularly with air pollution, watering, and sanitation. The level of outdoor air pollution is very high in Capital City of Yerevan and other cities, primarily from traffic and industry.  The main pollutants are carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, lead and dust. During the 1970s and 1980s, these pollutants exceeded the atmospheric Maximum Permissible Levels (MPLs) set by WHO by many (5-135) times.  After the collapse of the industrial sector and the sharp decrease in production, industrial emissions of toxic substances dropped 10-20 times compared to 1989 levels, with an accompanying drop in the concentration of pollutants in the air of 3.5 times.  However, since the economic recovery and increase in transportation, the concentration of pollutants in the air has again started to rise.  Although the MPLs set by Armenia are in fact much stricter than the WHO recommended MPLs, the standards are not enforced. 

The increasing level of lead in the air is of particular concern, especially for children.  A blood lead level of 100 mg/1 is the minimum level at which subtle health effects on the central nervous system may occur, manifesting as behaviour and learning problems and impaired intellectual ability.  A studies conducted by the Armenian Institute of General Hygiene and Occupation Diseases (1992-1993) revealed that 38.9% of children living in town Bureghavan, where there are lead emissions from a local crystal factory, had blood lead levels greater that 100 mg/1. 

Indoor air quality is also very bad throughout the country, especially in the cities at winter season.  Use of open fires, poor ventilation systems, cigarette smoking and construction materials all contribute to the poor air quality.  Measurements of indoor air quality taken from 1993 to 1995 by the Institute of Hygiene and Occupational Diseases showed that concentrations of dust 3.4-11.8 times exceed the MPL set by the WHO guideline and concentrations of CO from 0.5 to 1.5 times exceed the Armenian MPL.  It is documented that indoor air pollution may be contributing to the rise in the incidence of some cancers and chronic repiratory illnesses.

b) Measures to clean up the air:

The Republic of Armenia is party to the following international agreements: Air Pollution, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Nuclear Test Ban and Wetlands. The agreement on Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants is signed, but not ratified. Armenia participated in the UN Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED or Earth Summit) of Rio de Janeiro. The Ministry of Envi­ronment was designated as lead body to carry out a pilot programme as a follow-up to the Earth Summit. To reduce the risk of environmental degradation, the National Environmental Plan of Action (NEPA) has been designed in 1996.  It sug­gests improving the legislative and administrative framework for environmental protection, as well as strength­ening the institutions that establish educational and public awareness programmes. This NEPA includes also specific pro­posals that refer air and biodiversity.

In response to a strong movement of “Greens” the Nuclear Power Plant in Medzamor was functionally closed in 1989. The closure of the Medzamor Nuclear Power Plant resulted in crisis in the energy and industrial sectors that began as far back as in 1990. Decline of the industrial sector, the largest source of environmental air, water and waste pollution, has had a positive effect on the environment.

c) The major obstacles to achieving better air quality:

The main obstacles are related to the severe energy crisis precipitated by the transportation blockade, a large reduction of imported fuel, and interruption of fuel oil and natural gas supply. These factors affected both heat and electricity production, the latter of which dropped 58% between 1988 and 1993. It immediately impacted house-heating and electricity production. As a result, Armenians suffered great hardships during the first critical winter in 1991-1992, and also the following two cold winters. The intermittent supply of power to residences (only 1-2 hours per day) resulted in damage of several substations that supply energy and distributing networks.

The first winter of the crisis let to widespread deforestation as people began using wood as the primary source of heat and cooking.  Energy production met only 23% of demand in 1994.  The type of fuel used by the population changed during this time period.  Oil and wood replaced natural gas, and the consumption of liquid gas decreased because of its high price. To overcome urgently the energy and industrial crisis, the Nuclear Power Plant in Medzamor that was functionally closed in 1989 was reopened in 1995 without adequate (IAEA-recommended) safety and backup systems.

Thus, the relative improvement in the environmental indicators in the early 1990s is not expected to last long. The functioning of the nuclear power plant 13 km. outside of Yerevan is an issue of priority environmental concern. Besides, the continuing economic recovery, increased traffic flow, possible reopening of some plants and lack of enforcement of environmental legislation may continue to lead to environmental degradation.

a) Water problems that Armenia face:

Armenia is one of the countries that facing chronic shortages of fresh water. According to the Armenian Human Development Report 1997, only 88% of total population had access to safe water, in 1997[1]. Data from the nation-wide survey that was carried out in 1997 [2] indicate that cold water is supplied to the houses during only 4.4 hours per day, on the average. Regular cold water supply is available only for 26 % of the households (see chart). About 11% of the households don't get water at all, and this threatens people’s health and standards of living. In some villages drinking water and water for technical use is not available, and inhabitants have to buy it from vendors.

The lake Sevan was one of the main sources of hydro-energy power during the crisis period. This lake is Armenia’s most important water resource, and the largest freshwater alpine lake in all of Europe and Asia. Before the energy crisis, only about 15% of electricity production came from hydroelectric plants. By the end of 1995 the percentage of hydroelectricity had increased to about 70% of Armenia’s electricity supply (although the level of total electricity output in KWH in 1995 was only one-half of the 1990 output). The environmental consequences from the exploitation of lake Sevan’s waters were apparent: a drop in the level of water in this lake threatens drinking water supplies.  

b) The quality of fresh water in Armenia:

Water quality in Armenia is also considered to be a problem. Occasional water-borne disease outbreaks occur. The most recent example was a cholera outbreak in Hoktemberian, in 1999, that affected an estimated 250 people.  During 1997, on the basis of data provided by the Republican Epidemiological Surveillance Center of Armenia, almost 10807 cases of ascaridosis and 662 cases of trichocephalosis were registered in the population countrywide, and more than one half of those cases were registered in children under 14.  High infection rates were contributed to the high level of parasites in soil, as a consequence of sewerage system breaks, as well as to high level of parasites in irrigation water used for vegetable growing. 

As it was mentioned above, there is direct and indirect pollution of open reservoirs of the water with heavy metals, oil, pesticides, and solid waste, particularly in towns. The chemical levels of pollutants in Hrazdan and Aras Rivers and the second class water reservoirs did not meet acceptable standards. Microbiological investigation of various water sources in the country showed high level of contamination.  According to the data published by the Ministry of Environment of the Republic of Armenia (1998), about 7% of the samples taken from 17 first class open reservoirs (rivers and lakes that may be used for drinking water) exceeded Minimum Permissible Levels of micro-biological contamination.

c) The prevention of pollutants that make water unsafe to drink:

There is legislation that outlines the role of the state in protecting the environment and ensuring rational use of natural resources, although enforcement is weak.  It also details the responsibilities of landowners in the handling and dumping of industrial and agricultural waste. In order to insure future water security, an agreement was signed in 1998 between the Armenian Government and the International Development Association (IDA) for loans totalling approximately $30 million for the improvement of Yerevan’s water system and water supply management. However, although Government financial allocations for the organization and implementation of nature preservation activity tenfold increased, as compared to 1994, there is lack of financial resources for introduction of the modern technologies to ensure better water quality. There are no mechanisms for neutralising and disposing of industrial toxic waste, no waste treatment enterprises for prevention of pollutants that make water unsafe to drink.

a) The nutritional situation in Armenia:

The Republic of Armenia is still heavily dependent on imports for foodgrains, meat and dairy products.  Fruits and vegetables, on the other hand, are in surplus. In response to a request of the Ministry of Health of Armenia, in 1998 the UNICEF promoted a feasibility study by mean of the nation-wide survey of 3,000 households [1] in collaboration with the National Institute of Nutrition, Italy, to evaluate nutritional status of women and children in Armenia and to design an appropriate surveillance system for the country. This study revealed that the staple food in Armenian diet is bread, consumed with every meal. Milk and dairy products were consumed approximately every second day, meat – once-twice a week by residents and only once by refugees. One third of investigated women aged 23-45 years old were overweight or obese. Underlying causes of obesity could be the high fat diet. Obesity is a major factor for cardiovascular diseases, the leading cause of death in the Republic[2]. Thyroid was palpable in one woman in three, with 6% of the women having a visible goitre.

The same study observed that mild and moderate anaemia have had 15% of investigated women of fertile age. Anaemia was common in pregnant women, with rates increasing as pregnancy advanced. Low height-for-age was observed in 13% of the entire sample of children under 5 years, with a higher proportion in rural areas, both among residents and refugees. The lack of nutritional status has also particularly affected children’s health and significant proportion of children is anaemic (about 26% of the children aged 12-23 months and in 25% of children aged 24-59 months have had mid and moderate anaemia). Its prevalence was significantly higher in rural residents (38% in children 12-23 months and 30% in children 24-59 months) and in rural refugees (29% in children 12-59 months). The breast-feeding was observed in 80% of the children aged 0-6 months, 40% of those aged 6-12 months and 20% of the 12-24 month olds. Complementary foods were introduced very early in children’s diets, particularly in rural areas. Results of this study suggest that Armenian women and children affected by a chronic exposure to poor diet, leading to a marginal to low micronutritient status.

The official data published by the Ministry of Health of Armenia show that the prevalence of low birth weight babies, defined as the live births between 1kg and 2.5 kg, has been steady increasing since 1980. It should be mentioned also that Armenia is a mountainous country with high risk of iodine deficiency disorders (IDD). Moderate IDD has been reported from different regions of Armenia since decades. In addition, since 1990 the salt consumed in Armenia is not iodized. Goitre prevalence is widespread in the country with a high endemicity of 25-30% in the mountainous regions. While the entire county has been affected, approximately 70% of children in rural mountainous regions are suffering from Grave’s Disease and other iodine deficiency disorders, including 25% suffering from goitre[3].

The Food Summit produced the Rome Declaration on World Food Security and the World Summit Plan of Ac­tion.  The latter contains seven commitments on the part of the Governments, which are expected to lead to significant reductions in chronic hunger. As a follow-up to the Food Summit, a Government Advisory Commission (GAC) was created in November 1998.  The Na­tional Concept Document “The Concept of the Policy on the Food Security in Armenia” has been elaborated, which is currently discussed in the Government.  A number of NGOs are rather active in food provision and food security.  Their activities are mainly confined to humanitarian assistance, however there are some, which are also striving to link their activities with development programmes. 

b) Percentage of population that receives adequate daily caloric intake:

Household income structure in Armenia changed dramatically as a result of the economic crisis.  Wages, which made up 76% of household income in 1985, dropped to just 26% of the income share in 1997. With the beginning of the restructuring of the Armenian society, poverty has increasingly become an urgent issue. The number of people who cannot afford the minimal consumer basket has increased. Much of Armenia’s population remains heavily dependent on remittances from relatives’ abroad, and the remittances from Russia fell off sharply in 1998 due to the Russian financial crisis.

The nation-wide population-based survey in 1400 women and 1400 men of reproductive age[4] shows that about 43.5% of men and 40% of women consider themselves as poor/very poor (see chart). In about 21% of the Armenian households (consisted from four members in the average), the total monthly family expenditures are less than US$50. In fact, expert investigations demonstrate that the minimal consumer basket cost actually 50 USD per person.

Another poverty assessment survey[5] that was conducted in November-December 1996 revealed that almost 55% of the population of Armenia are living in poverty and do not receive an adequate daily caloric intake. Three measures were used to differentiate between degrees of poverty: poor, very poor and extremely poor. These measures are described in following Table. 

Measures to assess levels of poverty (1996) 

Source: Armenia: Profile on Poverty 1996, World Bank Draft Report, 1998

Of the 54.7% of the population in poverty, the proportion of very poor is 27.7% and extremely poor is 8.5%. The groups most at risk for poverty are: 1) urban dwellers; 2) landless; 3) less educated; 4) unemployed; 5) households with young children or a high dependency ratio and 6) young children, children with disabilities or orphans.  

c) Programs that help farmers to keep their land healthy:

The program of land privatization began in 1991 and covered the land and assets of the former collective and state farms. The Ministry of Nature Protection and Mineral Wealth has been created. Government financial allocations for the organization and implementation of nature preservation activities increased almost tenfold.

With collapse of the industrial sector an agricultural sector began to improve. The increased efficiency of the agricultural sector has been a key factor in preventing famine during the 1992-1994 crisis years. In response to the request of the Government of Armenia, since 1993, USDA American TDY has carried out explanatory work among the Armenian farmers on how to keep their land healthy. This organization has brought in 10 types of chemicals to Armenia for selected 12 Armenian dealers to market in 8 different regions, including Yerevan, Aragatsotn, Armavir, Vajots Dzor, Tavush, Shirak, Lori and Gegarkunik. The total amount of the chemicals covered 4% of the total demand of the country. According to the opinion of the experts from the Armenian Agricultural Academy, five of those 10 chemicals are new and more effective.

No official information was found about the pest management programs to help farmers find alternatives to chemicals for controlling insects, weeds and crop diseases. However, some applied marketing activities of the USDA includes elements of soil improvement. As an example is the vegetable seed trials in 1999 that were carried out in different regions of Armenia when treated and healthy seeds of different vegetables, including American tomato, cucumber, sweet corn, carrot, cabbage and others have been used. The trials demonstrated high and healthy yield, as well as signs of soil health improvement.